Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (May 3, 1469 – June 21, 1527) was an Italian diplomat, political philosopher, musician, poet and playwright. Machiavelli was a figure of the Italian Renaissance, and a servant of the Florentine republic. In June of 1498, following the ouster and execution of Savonarola, the Great Council elected Machiavelli as the Secretary to the second Chancery of the Republic of Florence.
He is most famous for one of his shorter works, The Prince, sometimes described as a work of realist political theory. However, both that text and the more substantial republican Discourses on Livy — as well as History of Florence (commissioned by the Medici family) — were printed only after his death, all appearing in the early 1530s. In his own lifetime, while he circulated The Prince among friends, the only work Machiavelli promoted through printing was his dialogue on The Art of War. But generations from the sixteenth century onwards were most attracted and repelled by the cynical approach to power on display in The Prince, Discourses and History.
Easton Press Machiavelli books
The Prince - 100 Greatest Books Ever Written - 1980
The Art of War - Library of Military History - 1990
Franklin Library Machiavelli books
The Prince - 100 Greatest Books of All Time - 1978
Political Writings by Niccolo Machiavelli and Hobbes - Great Books of the Western World - 1983
(This page contains affiliate links for which we may be compensated.)
Niccolò Machiavelli biography
Machiavelli was born in Florence, the second son of Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli, a lawyer, and of Bartolommea di Stefano Nelli. His family was believed to be descendants of the old marquesses of Tuscany, and to have included 13 Florentine Gonfalonieres of Justice.
Machiavelli was born into a tumultuous era in which Popes were leading armies, and wealthy city-states of Italy would fall one after another into the hands of foreign powers — France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constantly shifting alliances, condottieri who changed sides without warning, and governments rising and falling in the space of weeks. Perhaps most significant during this erratic upheaval was the sack of Rome in 1527 by rampaging soldiers of the Holy Roman Empire, the first time that Rome had been sacked by a Germanic army in nearly twelve centuries. Rich cities such as Florence and Genoa suffered a similar fate during these years.
Machiavelli, trained as a man with severe rigor by his father, was educated to be skilled in Latin, but had little Greek. He entered governmental service as a clerk and ambassador in 1494; that same year, Florence had restored the republic and expelled the Medici family, rulers of the city for nearly sixty years. Machiavelli was placed as a member of a Council responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military matters. Between 1499 and 1512, he undertook a number of diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII in France, Ferdinand II of Aragón, and the Papacy in Rome. From 1502 to 1503, he was a witness to the effective statebuilding methods of the soldier/churchman Cesare Borgia, who was at that time enlarging his territories in central Italy through a mixture of audacity, prudence, self-reliance, firmness and, frequently, cruelty.
Between 1503 and 1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia including the defense of the city. He distrusted mercenaries (a sentiment he explained in the Discourses and in the Prince) and much preferred a citizen militia. This philosophy bore fruit when, in 1509, Florence's citizen forces defeated Pisa under Machiavelli's direction. However, in August 1512, the Medici with the help of Pope Julius II used Spanish troops to defeat the Florentine forces at Prato. The Florentine head of state, Piero Soderini, resigned and went into exile, and Florence and the republic was subsequently dissolved. Machiavelli, having played a significant role in the republic's anti-Medici government, was removed from office and in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy and arrested. Although tortured "by the rope" (a practice wherein one's hands were bound behind one's back and connected to a pulley which would lift the victim off the ground, dislocating one's shoulders), he denied his involvement and was eventually released. He retired to his estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began writing the treatises that would ensure his place in the development of political philosophy and conduct.
In a famous letter to his friend Francesco Vettori, he described how he spent his days in exile:
"When evening comes, I return home [from work and from the local tavern] and go to my study. On the threshold I strip naked, taking off my muddy, sweaty workday clothes, and put on the robes of court and palace, and in this graver dress I enter the courts of the ancients and am welcomed by them, and there I taste the food that alone is mine, and for which I was born. And there I make bold to speak to them and ask the motives of their actions, and they, in their humanity reply to me. And for the space of four hours I forget the world, remember no vexation, fear poverty no more, tremble no more at death; I pass indeed into their world."
Machiavelli himself identified a unifying theme in The Prince and the Discorsi:
"All cities that ever at any time have been ruled by an absolute prince, by aristocrats or by the people, have had for their protection force combined with prudence, because the latter is not enough alone, and the first either does not produce things, or when they are produced, does not maintain them. Force and prudence, then, are the might of all the governments that ever have been or will be in the world."
Death
Machiavelli died in San Casciano, a few miles outside of Florence, in 1527. His resting place is unknown; however a cenotaph in his honor was placed at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. The Latin sentence on the tomb — TANTO NOMINI NULLUM PAR ELOGIUM — is translated as either 'for so great a name, no praise is adequate' or 'No elegy is equal to such a name'
Revival of interest in 19th and 20th centuries
While Macchiavelli remained an influential author in the 17th and 18th centuries, the revival of interest in his work in the 19th and particularly the 20th century is remarkable. A reliable guide to this is contained in the lengthy Introduction to ' ' Il Principe ' ' by Christian Gauss, Dean of Princeton University, first published in 1953 (Mentor Books Edition). In his extremely detailed discussion of Machiavelli, Dean Gauss discusses the commentaries written by, among others, the great German historians Ranke (19th) and Meineke (20th); and in Britain, Lord Acton. The consensus of opinion cited by Gauss is that Machiavelli was the first political theorist to use a "scientific" approach (although Machiavelli himself did not use this phrase), and that he can even be considered "the first modern man." All of these views assume a rather positive attitude toward Machiavelli. They emphasize that his view of the world, based upon realism, leads to generally helpful and socially constructive results.
The Prince
Machiavelli's best known book is The Prince, in which he describes the arts by which a Prince (a ruler), can retain control of his realm. He focuses primarily on what he calls the "new prince", under the assumption that a hereditary prince has an easier task since the people are accustomed to him. All a hereditary prince needs to do is carefully maintain the institutions that the people are used to; a new prince has a much more difficult task since he must stabilize his newfound power and build a structure that will endure. This task requires the Prince to be publicly above reproach but privately may require him to do immoral things in order to achieve his goals.
Machiavelli explains through examples which princes are the most successful in obtaining and maintaining power. He draws his examples from personal observations made while he was on diplomatic missions for Florence and from his readings in ancient history. He periodically uses Latin phrases, and many examples are drawn from Classical sources.
Machiavelli does not dispense entirely with morality nor advocate wholesale selfishness or degeneracy. Instead he outlines his definition of, for example, the criteria for acceptable cruel actions (it must be swift, effective, and short-lived). Machiavelli also does not miss the irony in the fact that good can come from evil actions. Notwithstanding the mitigating themes in The Prince, the Catholic Church put the work in its Index Librorum Prohibitorum and it was viewed in a negative light by many Humanists such as Erasmus.
The primary contribution of The Prince to the history of political thought is its fundamental break between realism and idealism.
The Prince is a guide to acquiring and keeping power. In contrast with Plato and Aristotle, the ideal society is not the aim. In fact, Machiavelli emphasizes the need for the exercise of brute power when necessary and rewards, patron-clientelism etc. to preserve the status quo.
The term "Machiavellian" was adopted by some of Machiavelli's contemporaries, often used in the introductions of political tracts of the sixteenth century that offered more 'just' reasons of state, most notably those of Jean Bodin and Giovanni Botero. The pejorative term Machiavellian as it is used today (or anti-Machiavellism as it was used from the sixteenth century) is thus a misnomer, as it describes one who deceives and manipulates others for gain; whether the gain is personal or not is of no relevance, only that any actions taken are only important insofar as they affect the results. It fails to include some of the more moderating themes found in Machiavelli's works and the name is now associated with the extreme viewpoint.
The Art of War
The
Art of War is a strategic military treatise written by the Italian
Renaissance political philosopher and strategist Niccolò Machiavelli.
While Machiavelli is perhaps better known for his work The Prince, The
Art of War stands as another significant contribution to his body of
work. Born on May 3, 1469, in Florence, Italy, Machiavelli served in
various governmental roles in the Florentine Republic during a time of
political turmoil and foreign invasion. His experiences in diplomacy and
military affairs heavily influenced his writings, including The Art of
War, which he completed in 1521.
The Art of War is distinct from
the more widely known Sun Tzu's treatise of the same name. Machiavelli's
work offers practical advice and insights into the conduct of war and
statecraft, tailored for the specific political and military context of
Renaissance Italy. In this treatise, Machiavelli explores themes such as
strategy, tactics, leadership, and the use of force in achieving
political objectives. He emphasizes the importance of adaptability,
foresight, and innovation in warfare, as well as the need for rulers to
maintain a strong and disciplined military to ensure the security and
stability of their states. Machiavelli's approach to warfare in The Art
of War is characterized by its realism and pragmatism. He rejects the
romanticized notions of chivalry and honor that prevailed in his time,
advocating instead for a cold and calculating assessment of power
dynamics and the pursuit of self-interest.
While The Art of War
is primarily focused on military matters, Machiavelli also addresses
broader questions of statecraft and governance. He argues that
successful rulers must be shrewd and decisive, willing to make difficult
choices and take calculated risks to maintain their authority and
protect their interests. Despite its historical context, The Art of War
remains relevant today as a timeless exploration of the strategies and
principles of conflict and power. Machiavelli's insights continue to
inform discussions about politics, military strategy, and leadership in
both theory and practice.
Discorsi
Machiavelli's Discourse on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy comprises the early history of Rome. It constitutes a series of lessons on how a republic should be started and structured, including the concept of checks and balances, the strength of a tripartite structure and the superiority of a republic over a principality.
From The Discourses:
"In fact, when there is combined under the same constitution a prince, a nobility, and the power of the people, then these three powers will watch and keep each other reciprocally in check." Book I, Chapter II
"Doubtless these means [of attaining power] are cruel and destructive of all civilized life, and neither Christian nor even human, and should be avoided by every one. In fact, the life of a private citizen would be preferable to that of a king at the expense of the ruin of so many human beings." Book I, Chapter XXVI
"Now in a well-ordered republic it should never be necessary to resort to extra-constitutional measures...." Book I, Chapter XXXIV
"...the governments of the people are better than those of princes." Book I, Chapter LVIII
"...if we compare the faults of a people with those of princes, as well as their respective good qualities, we shall find the people vastly superior in all that is good and glorious." Book I, Chapter LVIII
"For government consists mainly in so keeping your subjects that they shall be neither able nor disposed to injure you...." Book II, Chapter XXIII
"...no prince is ever benefited by making himself hated." Book III, Chapter XIX
"Let not princes complain of the faults committed by the people subjected to their authority, for they result entirely from their own negligence or bad example." Book III, Chapter XXIX"
Other works
Machiavelli also wrote plays (Clizia, Mandragola), poetry (Sonetti, Canzoni, Ottave, Canti carnascialeschi) and novels (Belfagor arcidiavolo) as well as translating classical works.
Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499)
Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati (1502)
Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell' ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, etc. (Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino when Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini, 1502)
Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502)
Decennale primo (1506, poem in terza rima)
Ritratti delle cose dell'Alemagna (1508-1512)
Decennale secondo (1509)
Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510)
Andria (1517, comedy translated from Terence)
Mandragola (The Mandrake - 1518, prose comedy in five acts, with prologue in verse)
Della lingua (1514, dialogue)
Clizia (1525, comedy in prose)
Belfagor arcidiavolo (1515, novel)
Asino d'oro (The Golden Ass - 1517, poem in terza rima, a new version of the classic work by Apuleius)
Dell'arte della guerra (The Art of War, 1519-1520)
Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520)
Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520)
Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca (The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca, 1520)
Istorie fiorentine (Florentine Histories - 8 books, 1520-1525, commissioned by Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici who went on to become Pope Clement VII).
Frammenti storici (1525)
Machiavelli quotes
On Power and Control
"It is much safer to be feared than loved," but he famously added that a prince should avoid being hated."Men ought either to be well treated or crushed," because they can avenge light injuries but not serious ones.
"Never attempt to win by force what can be won by deception."
"A prince never lacks legitimate reasons to break his promise."
"The first method for estimating the intelligence of a ruler is to look at the men he has around him."
On Human Nature
"Everyone sees what you appear to be, few really know what you are.""Men are so simple... that he who deceives will always find those who allow themselves to be deceived."
"A son cannot calmly bear the loss of his father, but the loss of his inheritance can drive him to despair."
"Men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand, for everyone can see and few can feel."
On Strategy and War
"There is no avoiding war; it can only be postponed to the advantage of others.""One must therefore be a fox to recognize traps, and a lion to frighten wolves."
"Before all else, be armed."
"Wars begin when you will, but they do not end when you please."
On Change and Fortune
"Whosoever desires constant success must change his conduct with the times.""There is nothing more difficult to take in hand... than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things."
"Fortune is a woman, and if you wish to keep her under it is necessary to beat and ill-use her." (A controversial metaphor for Machiavelli’s belief that bold action is better than cautious waiting).
A Note on "The End Justifies the Means"
While this is the phrase most commonly associated with Machiavelli, he never actually wrote it exactly like that. The closest equivalent in The Prince is:
"In the actions of all men, and especially of princes... one looks to the end... Let a prince therefore act to seize and to maintain the state; his methods will always be judged honorable and will be praised by all."
Source and additional information: Niccolò Machiavelli